Elements Of Computer Architecture Information Technology Essay

Elements Of Computer Architecture Information Technology Essay A computer is an electronic machine that receives data as an input, manipulates it and provides an output for it in a useful format readable by the user. It is now an important part in the lives of human beings and many scientific advances are due to computers in todays world. Early computers were less in processing speed and memory when compared to modern computers. According to Dumas (2006), computers can be classified into five generations. The first generation of computers came into existence approximately in late 1930s to early 1950s. The second generation of computers came into existence between the mid 1950s to early 1960s. The third generation of computers was developed between mid 1960s to early 1970s. The fourth generation of computers was invented in the mid 1970s to early 1990s. Modern day computers belong to fifth generation of computers. Computer architecture explains about the design and integration of several devices into a single unit. There are three elements in com puter architecture. These elements are input/output devices, internal devices and how computer works. The first element of computer architecture is input/output devices. According to Morley and Parker (2006), an input device means an electronic device used to enter data into the computer. An output device means an electronic device which provides the processed result to the user. In the first generation of computers, input devices were paper punch cards and paper tape and the output was printed on paper. In the second generation of computers, input devices were paper punch cards and magnetic tape whereas the output was printed on punch cards and paper printouts. In the third generation of computers, punched cards were replaced by keyboards as input device and paper printouts were replaced by monitors as output device. In the fourth generation of computers, input devices were keyboard and mouse and the output devices were monitor and printer. The modern computer input devices are keyboard, mouse, microphone, scanner, digital camera, touchpad and fingerprint reader. The output devices are monitor, printer, speaker and data projector. According to Anfinson and Quamme (2008), the mouse and keyboard are the most common input devices in the modern computers. The mouse is used as a human computer interface and keyboard is used for entering the text into the computer and the most important output devices are monitor and projectors. Larry and Long (2004) describes that some of the input and output devices are attractive; for instance, there is an electronic nose which detects odors and this is used in food industries to detect the pungent odor in prepared foods. Special input/output devices are called assistive technology and its used for disabled people. These people can work and live independently, for example, a set of rings, two bracelets, a pair of shoes and a glove work as input/output devices for them. The second element of computer architecture is internal components. According to Morley and Parker (2006), the first generation of computers was huge and enormous, often occupying an entire room. They were powered by constantly replaced vacuum tubes or glass tubes identical to a large cylindrical light bulb. These vacuum tubes required a large amount of electricity to work and generated a lot of heat as a result. In the second generation of computers, heat producing vacuum tubes were replaced with transistors. The transistors are a small device made of semiconductor. The transistors with integrated circuit used in the third generation of computers. In the fourth generation of computers, the advanced technology of microprocessors replaced the integrated circuit. Anfinson and Quamme (2008) described the fifth generation or modern computers internal components are tiny when compared with the first generation of computers. These components are motherboard, central processing unit (CPU), Read only memory (ROM), Random access memory (RAM), power supply unit and storage devices. Firstly, the motherboard is the main printed circuit board; furthermore, an important component on the motherboard is the chipset. Secondly, the central processing unit is the most important element of a computer system and it is considered as the computers brain. The central processing unit is sometimes called as a processor. Most calculations take place in the central processing unit. Thirdly, Read only memory is located on the mother board. Read Only Memory (ROM) chips contain instructions accessed directly by the central processing unit. Then, Random Access Memory (RAM) is the temporary storage unit for data and programs that are being accessed by the central processing unit. RAM is a volatile memory, which means that the contents are erased when the computer is powered off. According to White (2008), the electricity enters to shielded metal box called power supply unit. It supplies power to the other components in a computer. These units control the main power into the voltage required to run the machine. Finally, Patterson and Hennessy (2005) explained the three primary technologies used in building memory hierarchies. Main memory is implemented from dynamic random memory, the second one is static random access memory and the last one is magnetic disk. The third element of computer architecture is how the computers work. The central processing unit takes an important role in the working process of the computers. According to Morley and Parker (2006), the central processing unit is basically a collection of electronic circuits and components and it may have variety of registers for string intermediary calculation, temporary storage and the final result of processed data. Arithmetic logic unit is the part of the central processing unit and it performs arithmetic operations and logical operations; for example, arithmetic operations are addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and logical operations are comparisons and conditions checking. Larry and Nancy (2004) describe that the computers deal with everything as electronic signals; besides, electronic signals are classified into analog and digital signals. The analog and digital convertor converts analog data into digital data, for example analog signals such as letters, sound, images, colors, shapes are converted into digital data as 0s and 1s. 0s and 1s are known as binary numbers and they are classified as digital signals; furthermore, computer can operate only with the digital signals. ASCII (American standard code for information interchange) is the most popular coding system for computers and data communications. This coding system equates a unique series of 0s and 1s, for example, the English character B is 01000010. According to White (2008), software is an important tool compiled by different set of programs. Programs are defined as set of instructions and it can be a single file or recorded data. Operating system is one of the important software in computer and it is used to run the whole system or computer. It establishes rules by which the computer can then load other programs and work with hardware.

Mother Tongue †Based Multilingual Education

With all the students having a difficulty in coping with their lessons, Mother tongue-based multilingual education may be helpful or not in solving this problem.OUTLINEI. Introduction II. Purpose of Mother Tongue-based Education A. Reasons why the Mother Tongue should be used in primary schools B.Points and ideas about Mother Tongue-based Education III. Target learners of Mother Tongue-based Education IV. Effects of Mother Tongue-based education to students A. Advantages B. Disadvantages V. ConclusionI.INTRODUCTIONOne of the changes in the basic curriculum of education brought about by the new K + 12 program is the introduction of Mother Tongue – based Multilingual Education. It will be implemented specifically to kindergarten, grades 1, 2 and 3. Mother Tongue refers to â€Å"first-language-first† education that is, schooling which begins in the mother tongue and transitions to additional languages particularly Filipino and English. It is meant to address the high funct ional illiteracy of Filipinos where language plays a significant factor. Since the child’s own language enables her/ him to express him/herself easily, then, there is no fear of making mistakes.It encourages active participation by children in the learning process because they understand what is being discussed and what is being asked of them. They can immediately use their mother tongue to construct and explain their world, articulate their thoughts and add new concepts to what they already know. With the demand of a high quality education today, this research paper therefore aims to attain the following objectives: 1.To discuss the purpose of Mother-tongue based multilingual education (MTB-MLE) 2.To state the nature and effects of Mother tongue  3.To tackle as a form of comparing the advantage and disadvantages of  MTB-MLE. 4.To prove why Mother Tongue is a helpful or not in solving the problem with students having a difficulty in coping with their lessons.II.PURPOSE OF MOTHER TONGUE-BASED EDUCATIONA.Reasons why the Mother Tongue should be used in primary schoolsThere are many reasons why it is so important to support the continued learning of the home language or mother tongue. As Clarke (2009) puts it: A strong first language supports the development of a positive self-concept, helps to strengthen the existing relationships within the family and provides the opportunity to continue cognitive development while learning other languages as a second language.In supporting the first language it is needed: respecting and supporting the home language, planning base on the development of knowledge of language, creating an environment to support natural language learning, observing children talking, finding out what they know in using language, establishing a supportive environment, understanding and appreciating the home literacy and helping parents to understand the value of a strong first or home language (Hassanzadeh et al. 40)Local and international studies show that the use of the learner’s mother tongue or the language used at home is the most effective medium of learning. â€Å"It is the easiest way for children to access the unfamiliar world of school learning. (Luistro)† If the use of mother tongue will be discarded in favor of a new unfamiliar language upon the children’s entry into grade school, the learners lose interest in their studies because there is a disconnection in the language used at home and in school. It will also be a loss of confidence in them as learners since their culture and experiences are excluded in classroom interactions.Strong and well-planned MT-Based MLE programs help students to build a string educational foundation when they enable and encourage students to develop oral fluency in their first language, introduce reading and writing in their first language, help students to become fluent and confident in first language literacy, and lastly, build their capacity to use thei r mother tongue for everyday communication and for learning in school.MTB-MLE help learners build a ‘good bridge’ when the teachers introduce  other languages in oral through a meaningful and non-threatening activities, introduce writing and reading other language by building on what they have learned about the oral teaching of language and their foundation in the first language literacy because reading is like a bicycle, we only need to learn once, and lastly, build fluency and confidence in using oral and written language for everyday communication and for academic learning.MTB-MLE programs ensure that students achieve educational competencies or standards established by education officials for each grade when the teachers use the mother tongue only for teaching in the early year of grade school, as students are learning basic communication skills in English and the teachers use the mother tongue with English for teaching in later grades, as students gain fluency an d confidence in using the school language for learning academic concepts. (Malone 3-4)B.Points and ideas about Mother Tongue-based EducationLanguage is one of the valuable gifts which have been passed to children. The first language is significant and builds the basis for all later language progresses. Parents, family members and early childhood professionals have very important role on the development and maintenance of the first language. Studies shows that knowing one language can assist the child to comprehend how other languages work. First or home language is particularly important for the child‘s development of a positive self-concept and well-being.Children who have the chance to maintain their first language can extend their cognitive development, while learning English [this also can be correct with other languages including Turkish] as a second language. Their level of competence in the second language has relationship to the level of competence they have achieved i n their first language. Children with a sound knowledge of their first language will be able to transfer skills from one language to another. Early childhood professionals can play a vital role in the maintenance of children‘s first languages.They can provide opportunities for children to use their mother tongue in early childhood settings and at school and encourage the parents to use the mother tongue at home in order to provide a good foundation for learning English. It is important to reassure parents that children will learn English as a second language from English speakers (Clarke). The mother tongue opens the  door, including its own grammar, to all grammars, in which it awakens the potential for universal grammar that lies within all of us. It is the valuable asset people bring to the task of language learning. For this reason, the mother tongue is the master key to foreign languages, the tool which gives us the fastest, surest, most precise, and most complete means of accessing a foreign language.Successful learners capitalize on the vast amount of linguistic skills and world knowledge they have accumulated via the mother tongue. For the beginner, becoming aware of meanings automatically involves connecting them with the mother tongue – until the FL has established an ever-more complex network for itself. The foreign language learner must build upon existing skills and knowledge acquired in and through the mother tongue. Monolingual lessons without the help of the mother tongue are extrinsically possible; however, monolingual learning is an intrinsic impossibility.No one can simply turn off what they already know. It is postulated that the mother tongue is ‘silently‘ present in beginners, even when lessons are kept monolingual. Just as we build upon our abilities to vocalize, to read and to write, all of which have been developed via our mother tongue, so too we are unable to switch off our knowledge of the world, again acq uired through the mother tongue. With the emergence of research into the role of form-focused instruction, teacher- researchers have also begun to acknowledge the mother tongue as a legitimate tool with the potential to facilitate learning mainly in accuracy-based tasks (Ferrer). â€Å"You can banish the MT from the classroom, but you cannot banish it from the pupils’ heads† (Butzkamm p.31).We need to associate the new with the old. To exclude MT links would deprive us of the richest source for building cross-linguistic networks. The well-directed and informative use of lexical and syntactic parallels between the mother tongue and foreign languages taught in schools promotes retention and deepens the understanding of the historical affinity of language and culture (Butzkamm, 2003). The relationship between languages should be clearly established and not ignored or suppressed. The non-use of the MT, however, seriously constrains what can be said and read. MT will save l earners from a feeling of frustration which will eventually lead them to avoid all topics of personal interest. The measured and well-calculated contribution of the mother tongue can allow pupils to tackle more difficult texts sooner (Hassanzadeh et al. 40-42).III.TARGET LEARNERS OF MOTHER TONGUE-BASED EDUCATIONBasically, MTB-MLE targets students who are having a difficulty in understanding other languages rather than their own language which is their first language. Most of these students are primarily entering kindergarten and first three years of grade school. It’s very common that children will lack interest in going to school once they didn’t understand their lessons at school. Since, their parents are from different places around the country or around the world, it’s expected them to speak and understand what they learn from their parents. Not all students can understand English or other languages. At the start of classes, many will have a hard time in cop ing up with the lessons since they’re having a difficulty in understanding what the teachers are saying.MTB-MLE aims to produce learners who are:Multi-literate – they can read and write competently in the local language, the national language, and one or more languages of wider communication, such as English;Multi-lingual – they can use these languages in various situations;Multi-cultural – they can live and work harmoniously with people of culture backgrounds that are different from their own (Nolasco 3).IV.EFFECTS OF MOTHER TONGUE-BASED EDUCATION TO STUDENTSA.AdvantagesIn Mother Tongue-based Multilingual Education, students are taught over a period of time in their native language and English is treated as a second language, taught side by side and only when the student is believed to have attained proficiency in native language, so that he can master English easily. Technically and simply speaking, multilingual education is any educational system that favors education in more than one language. According to its proponents, the most important benefit of this system is that a student, who is from a non-English speaking background, can easily learn English, owing to his language development, in his native language as well as in English language.And isn't it good to be proficient in various languages? What problem does it create if a student is well conversant in English and in his mother tongue? Besides that, a child who is exposed to multiple languages will be able to develop a better sense of appreciating  various cultures and understanding societies. After all, now we're living in a global world and so being multilingual is always an asset in firms and business works.Added to these advantages the child can easily use his native language in groups and he won't feel ashamed of it. In case, he is just aware of one language, he may face problems of hesitation in expressing himself. Its beautiful form of education as the minority sp eakers can learn English even while being able to strengthen their cultural bonds by being proficient in their mother tongue. (Pandey)B.DisadvantagesUnsuccessful Attempt at Integration into SocietyMultilingual education was deemed necessary since it was supposed to help integrate the children of immigrants and minorities into society. The system of multilingual education demanded separate teachers and classrooms and believed in gradual integration into society by allowing children to receive education in their native language for a period of three or more years.Proponents of a single medium of instruction opposed bilingual education, since they believed that separate teachers and classrooms would widen the already existing gap between citizens and immigrants. They further proposed that encouraging children to interact within their own community for a period of three years, would delay the process of adjusting to the ways of life in a new country.School Dropout RatesOver the years, t he dropout rate in various schools across North America has reduced significantly. The medium of instruction in the above-mentioned schools is English. However, there has been no reduction in the dropout rates for schools offering multilingual education. Most people feel that a dropout rate of 35% doesn't justify the costs involved in providing this form of education.Unavailability of TeachersMultilingual education requires a number of trained teachers who are proficient in both English and their native language, assuming that English is one of the mediums of instruction. There is a wide gap between the demand and the supply for teachers, who are both confident and capable of handing the intense pressure associated with managing a class of students requiring special attention.Lack of ClassroomsThere is a dearth of classrooms that can accommodate students, who require instructions in both English and their native language. Students are expected to sit together in one class regardless of their age and the variations in the required level of education. This poses a great problem for teachers, who, in addition to being well versed in two languages, have to exhibit a certain level of comfort in handling different levels of education, simultaneously.Lack of FundsThe mentioned issues bring us to the tip of the problem: lack of funds to promote multilingual education.Bilingual Education Is CostlyEducation becomes unobtainable, when a language that is not dominant in nature is to be taught. The scenario becomes economically feasible, when multiple languages commonly used, are taught. An education system ought to be aware that the noble sap of education and literacy lies in understanding the language in which knowledge is imparted. The content and context of the subject becomes oblivious, if the student is not well acquainted with the language employed (Iyer).V.CONCLUSIONThis paper presents the benefits of a Mother Tongue-based Multilingual Education. MTB-MLE is a very helpful program to those students who use their first language in everyday life. It is used to also be a bridge or a mediator to learn other languages as well. Although it has some disadvantage in our money, it will ensure us that our children, future children and relatives will understand and learn very well the lesson being taught in school. Thus, Mother Tongue-based education is challenging in terms of planning, implementing and sustaining MTB-MLE programs in multiple language communities especially in multi-lingual countries lacking extensive financial resources.

Typology of Phraseological Units in English

Typology of phraseological units in English Difference in terminology (â€Å"set-phrases†, â€Å"idioms† and â€Å"word-equivalents† [1]) reflects certain differences in the main criteria used to distinguish types of phraseological units and free word-groups. The term â€Å"set phrase† implies that the basic criterion of differentiation is stability of the lexical components and grammatical structure of word-groups. There is a certain divergence of opinion as to the essential features of phraseological units as distinguished from other word-groups and the nature of phrases that can be properly termed â€Å"phraseological units†.The habitual terms â€Å"set-phrases†, â€Å"idioms†, â€Å"word-equivalents† are sometimes treated differently by different linguists. However these terms reflect to certain extend the main debatable points of phraseology which centre in the divergent views concerning the nature and essential features of phraseological units as distinguished from the so-called free word-groups [2, p. 100]. The term â€Å"set expression† implies that the basic criterion of differentiation is stability of the lexical components and grammatical structure of word-groups.The term â€Å"word-equivalent† stresses not only semantic but also functional inseparability of certain word-groups, their aptness to function in speech as single words. The term â€Å"idioms† generally implies that the essential feature of the linguistic units under consideration is idiomaticity or lack of motivation. Uriel Weinreich expresses his view that an idiom is a complex phrase, the meaning of which cannot be derived from the meanings of its elements. He developed a more truthful supposition, claiming that an idiom is a subset of a phraseological unit.Ray Jackendoff and Charles Fillmore offered a fairly broad definition of the idiom, which, in Fillmore’s words, reads as follows: â€Å"†¦an idi omatic expression or construction is something a language user could fail to know while knowing everything else in the language†. Chafe also lists four features of idioms that make them anomalies in the traditional language unit paradigm: non-compositionality, transformational defectiveness, ungrammaticality and frequency asymmetry [6, p. 1-3].The term â€Å"idiom†, both in this country and abroad, is mostly applied to phraseological units with completely transferred meanings, that is, to the ones in which the meaning of the whole unit does not correspond to the current meanings of the components. According to the type of meaning phraseological units may be classified into: †¢Idioms; †¢Semi-idioms; †¢Phraseomatic units (after Ryzhkova). Idioms are phraseological units with a transferred meaning. They can be completely or partially transferred (red tape [3, p. 740]). Semi-idioms are phraseological units with two phraseosemantic meanings: terminological and transferred (chain reaction [3, p. 10], to lay down the arms [3, p. 33]). Phraseomatic units are not transferred at all. Their meanings are literal. Other types of phraseological units are also distinguished: †¢Phrases with a unique combination of components (born companion [3, p. 138]); †¢Phrases with a descriptive meaning; †¢Phrases with phraseomatic and bound meaning (to pay attention to [3, p. 40]); †¢Set expressions (cliches) (the beginning of the end [3, p. 59]); †¢Preposition-noun phrases (for good [3, p. 311], at least [3, p. 414]); †¢Terminological expressions (general ticket [3, p. 755], civil war [3, p. 121]) (after Ryzhkova).Semantic complexity is one of the most essential qualities of phraseological units. It’s resulted from the complicated interaction of the component meanings (meaning of prototype, of semantic structure etc. ). All these components are organized into a multilevel structure [4]. Idioms contain all information in co mpressed form. This quality is typical of idioms, it makes them very capacious units (idiom is a compressed text). An idiom can provide such a bright explanation of an object that can be better than a sentence. We can compare idioms with fables (the Prodigal son [3, p. 571]).Idioms based on cultural components are not motivated (the good Samaritan [5], Lot’s wife [5], the Troy horse [5]). Phraseological meaning contains background information. It covers only the most essential features of the object it nominates. It corresponds to the basic concept, to semantic nucleus of the unit. It is the invariant of information conveyed by semantically complicated word combinations and which is not derived from the lexical meanings of the conjoined lexical components [4]. According to the class the word-combination belongs to, we single out: †¢idiomatic meaning; idiophraseomatic meaning; †¢phraseomatic meaning (after Ryzhkova). The information conveyed by phraseological units i s thoroughly organized and is very complicated. It is characterized by: 1) multilevel structure; 2) structure of a field (nucleus + periphery); 3) block-schema (after Ryzhkova). It contains 3 macro-components which correspond to a certain type of information they convey: †¢the grammatical block; †¢the phraseological meaning proper; †¢motivational macro-component (phraseological imagery; the inner form of the phraseological unit; motivation) (after Ryzhkova).Phraseological unit is a non-motivated word-group that cannot be freely made up in speech but is reproduced as a ready made unit. Reproducibility is regular use of phraseological units in speech as single unchangeable collocations. Idiomaticity is the quality of phraseological unit, when the meaning of the whole is not deducible from the sum of the meanings of the parts. Stability of a phraseological unit implies that it exists as a ready-made linguistic unit which does not allow of any variability of its lexical c omponents of grammatical structure.

Essay on Crime on the Internet - 2102 Words

Overview If cyberspace is a type of community, a giant neighborhood made up of networked computer users around the world, then it seems natural that many elements of a traditional society can be found taking shape as bits and bytes. With electronic commerce comes electronic merchants, plugged-in educators provide networked education, and doctors meet with patients in offices on-line. It should come as no surprise that there are also cybercriminals committing cybercrimes. As an unregulated hodgepodge of corporations, individuals, governments, educational institutions, and other organizations that have agreed in principle to use a standard set of communication protocols, the Internet is wide open to exploitation. There are no sheriffs†¦show more content†¦Not only is tracing the criminal labor-intensive, convictions are hard to obtain when laws are not written with electronic theft in mind. Software piracy According to estimates by the U.S. Software Publishers Association, as much as $7.5 billion of American software may be illegally copied and distributed annually worldwide. These copies work as well as the originals, and sell for significantly less money. Piracy is relatively easy, and only the largest rings of distributors are usually caught. Moreover, software pirates know that they are unlikely to serve hard jail time when prisons are overcrowded with people convicted of more serious crimes. From the legal perspective, prosecutors in the Dave LaMacchia case found that matching charges to an alleged crime was not an easy task. Child pornography This is one crime that is clearly illegal, both on and off the Internet. Crackdowns may catch some offenders, but there are still ways to acquire images of children in varying stages of dress and performing a variety of sexual acts. 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